Feeding Management: Key Driver of Profitability

Feed is critical to the growth and profitability of broiler production. Every practice associated with feed management determines profitability. This paper outlines the most important feed management practices that save farmers money.

General Recommendations About Feeding Systems

• Ensure sufficient feeding space: Critical to avoid reduced growth rates and compromised uniformity
• Optimize feed distribution: Essential for achieving target feed consumption rates
• Maintain proximity of feeder to birds: Helps ensure easy access and promotes target consumption
• Calibrate all feeder systems: Ensures sufficient feed volume while minimizing waste

Poultry chain feeding systems require meticulous management for optimal performance. Whether suspended by winches or supported on legs, these systems need 2.5 to 4 cm feeding space per bird, with the track’s lip kept level with birds‘ backs to avoid growth barriers. Feed depth must be closely monitored to minimize waste, and regular maintenance of corners and chain tension is essential between flocks When transitioning to pellets, feed depth should be reduced to 1 cm above the chain, with a uniform chain speed of 30 m/min for broilers (Fouda et al., 2019). For multiple circuits, installing tracks running in opposite directions is recommended.

For pan feeders, optimal management involves careful feed administration to promote efficient growth and reduce waste. A general stocking density of 45 to 65 birds per 33 cm pan is recommended (approximately 2 cm per chicken), with adjustments based on final bird size. As more space is provided to chickens, feed intake and growth increase gradually (Purswell et al., 2021). If feed intake is suboptimal, reducing chicken density can improve feed availability. Pan feeders allow unrestricted bird movement, reduce feed spillage, and enhance feed conversion. Pans should be primed at the start and ideally operated on an interval timer, with height adjustments to prevent tipping.

Starter Period

During the starter period, farmers must help chicks transition from in ovo feeding to standard feeding. This requires a systematic approach to ensure successful transition. Chicks must learn to feed correctly under optimal conditions: higher light intensity, feed on ground or papers, even temperature distribution, and clear water. Water comprises approximately 75% of chick weight gain up to 10 days of age, with feed conversion ratio below 1 during this period. Key recommendations include:

 

• Provide high-quality starter feed: Crucial for supporting early growth and physiological development
• Maintain appropriate environmental conditions: Helps establish good chick appetite and feed intake
• Prioritize biological performance over diet cost: Benefits of high-quality starter feed outweigh the higher cost
• Feed starter feed for 10-14 days: Ensures chicks achieve target weights and get a good start, minimizing susceptibility to disease and other stressors (Saleh et al., 1997)

Provide a particle size with 1.5-3.0 mm diameter and 1.5-3.0 mm length: Lemons et al. (2021) showed that crumble particle size significantly influenced feed conversion ratio and body weight gain in broilers. Larger crumble sizes (1,760 to 2,172 micrometers) improved feed conversion ratio. Broilers receiving diets with 2,800 micrometer crumble sizes gained approximately 30 grams more per bird compared to smaller sizes.

Grower Period

The grower period involves transitioning from crumble pellets to pellets. At the start of this phase, feed consumption often declines as chickens adjust to the new feed texture. This coincides with accelerated growth, making proper feed provision critical. Feed structure significantly influences feed intake. Recommendations include:

 

1. Be mindful of the change in feed texture from crumble/mini pellets to pellets
2. If pellets are too large, provide initial grower feed as crumb or mini pellet
3. Ensure adequate nutrient intake (especially energy and amino acids) to support rapid growth
4. Recognize that daily growth rates rapidly increase during this period
5. Provide particle size with 1.6-2.4 mm diameter and 4.0-5.0 mm length (Abdollahi et al., 2018)

Finisher Period

The final fattening phase focuses on growth before slaughter. Feed formulations must meet precise nutrient specifications, including energy, digestible amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. Feed ingredients, manufacturing processes, and environmental conditions affect vitamin and mineral requirements, requiring dynamic supplementation strategies. Key points:

 

1. Finisher diets typically have lower protein than grower diets but need adequate essential amino acids
2. Energy levels are crucial for supporting rapid growth
3. Calcium and phosphorus balance is important for bone development
4. Gradual transition from grower to finisher diet prevents digestive upset
5. Mixing feeds over several days helps birds adapt
6. Feed withdrawal before slaughter reduces gut fill and improves carcass quality
7. Follow withdrawal periods dictated by regulations and processing requirements

 

Feed Withdrawal

Feed withdrawal involves withholding feed from broilers for four to five hours before transport and slaughter to empty gastrointestinal tracts and minimize carcass contamination. Maximum starvation length is 12 hours (Zuidhof et al., 2004). Prolonged withdrawal can disrupt the gastrointestinal tract during processing, causing losses from contamination.

Gut clearance during pre-slaughter feed withdrawal depends on withdrawal duration, environmental conditions, and stress levels. Prolonged withdrawal can increase bacterial colonization, damage intestines, and cause significant weight loss. Nutritive supplements like maltodextrin with antimicrobial compounds are being investigated to reduce bacterial load and carcass contamination while minimizing weight loss and stress, though effectiveness depends on adequate consumption based on palatability and form (Machado et al., 2019).

 

Nutrition During Heat Stress

During summer months, heat stress endangers the finisher period. Feed management plays a crucial role in maintaining profitability when temperatures exceed the comfort zone. Recommendations include:

 

1. Maintain correctly balanced nutrient levels
2. Use feed ingredients with higher digestibility
3. Provide optimum feed form (good-quality pellet with 3.0-4.0 mm diameter and 3.0-5.0 mm length) (Abdollahi et al., 2018)
4. Increase feed energy from fats/oils rather than carbohydrates
5. Provide sufficient cool water (approximately 15°C/59°F)
6. Ensure water doesn’t exceed acceptable mineral and organic matter levels
7. Use vitamins (A, C, D, E, and niacin) and electrolytes (sodium, potassium, and chloride) through feed or water
8. Supplement with sodium bicarbonate or potassium carbonate (Onagbesan et al., 2023)

Specific Feeding Programs

While ad libitum and phased feeding of starter, grower, and finisher is standard, specific situations may call for alternative methods.

 

Prestarter Diet

A pre-starter diet is specialized feed for broilers‘ first week, providing highly digestible ingredients and high protein content to support rapid early development.

 

Benefits:

1. Reduced initial mortality: Minimizes chick deaths in the critical first week (Mahdavi et al., 2017)
2. Improved flock uniformity: Ensures more consistent development (Franco-Rosselló et al., 2022)
3. Better early growth performance: High nutrient content promotes faster, healthier early growth (Franco-Rosselló et al., 2022)

 

Limitations:

1. Increased Cost: Pre-starter diets are generally more expensive than standard starter diets
2. Lack of Long-Term Impact: Early performance gains don’t necessarily improve market weight performance (Birk et al., 2016)

 

Sequential/Separate Feeding

Sequential or separate feeding alternates different diets throughout the day (Bouvarel et al., 2008), such as alternating whole grain wheat with protein-rich feed.

 

Benefits:

1. Reduced Mortality Under Heat Stress: Decreases mortality during acute heat challenges, especially in the finishing period (Syafwan et al., 2011)
2. Improved Leg Health and Activity: Reduces gait score and increases activity in young broilers (Bizeray et al., 2002)
3. Potential for Metabolic Control: May effectively monitor and influence broiler metabolism through rapid adjustments when dietary protein concentration changes (Yaman et al., 2000)
4. Potential for Whole Grain Wheat use: Allows efficient use of whole grain wheat with complementary protein-rich feeds

 

Limitations:

1. Optimal Timing Challenges: Determining ideal duration for each feed interval is difficult
2. Practical Application: Complex management practices limit widespread adoption

 

Whole Wheat Feeding

Poultry whole grain feeding uses three main methods: Free Choice (separate feeders for grain and other feed), Mixed Feeding (combining grain with other feed), and Sequential Feeding (providing grain and other feed at different times). Feed composition options include protein concentrates, balancer diets without carbohydrates, or complete diets. Mixed Feeding divides into Pre-Pelleting (mixing before pelleting) and Post-Pelleting (adding after). All methods except pre-pelleting allow partial control of whole grain and protein concentrate proportions (Singh et al., 2014).

Important points for whole wheat inclusion:

 

1. Whole grains must be introduced early for proper acceptance
2. High inclusion levels (above 300 g/kg) can negatively impact growth, efficiency, and carcass quality

 

[Figure 1 Methods of whole wheat administration (Singh et al., 2014).]

 

Benefits:

1. Lower Feed Costs: Potential cost reduction
2. Sustained Bird Performance: Maintains performance when implemented correctly
3. Improved Gizzard Development: Promotes better digestive function
4. Increased Feed Efficiency: Larger gizzards can improve feed efficiency (Amerah and Ravindran, 2014)

 

Limitations:

1. Contradictory Results: Published data shows inconsistent effects (Singh et al., 2014)
2. Need for Uniform Mixing: Inconsistent mixing can cause nutrient imbalances and affect flock uniformity
3. Uncertainty Regarding Nutrient Dilution: Questions about compensating for dilution of protein, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals
4. Potential for Changes in Energy:Protein Ratio: Can negatively impact performance

 

Feed Restriction

Feed restriction counteracts negative effects of ad libitum feeding in fast-growing broilers by reducing metabolic and skeletal disorders from excessive feed intake.

 

Benefits:

1. Improved Feed Efficiency: Previously restricted birds may show better efficiency when given free access (Ewa et al., 2006)
2. Accelerated Growth: Restricted birds may grow faster relative to unrestricted birds of the same age
3. Economical Production: Potential for more cost-effective production through compensatory growth (Ewa et al., 2006)
4. Reduced Fat Content: Both quantitative and qualitative restriction methods can lower carcass fat content, especially abdominal fat (Santoso, 2001)
5. Lowered Mortality Rate: Some studies suggest restricted feeding can reduce mortality (Fontana et al., 1992)

 

Limitations:

1. Success of compensatory growth varies based on sex, strain, timing, duration, and restriction type (Leeson and Zubair, 1997)
2. Older studies on compensatory growth may not apply to today’s fast-growing birds (Vander Klein et al., 2017)

Conclusion

Effective feed management is crucial for profitable broiler production. This requires a multifaceted approach considering stage-specific nutritional needs, universal feeding principles, and strategic implementation of specialized programs. Optimizing feed intake, minimizing waste, and maximizing growth demand attention to consistent feeding space, proper distribution, and precise feeder calibration, alongside water quality and availability—especially during the starter phase and heat stress periods.

While specialized feeding programs like pre-starter diets, sequential feeding, and feed restriction offer targeted benefits, their practical application must balance efficiency, animal welfare, and precise nutrient specifications to ensure optimal performance and profitability.

References

Abdollahi, M. R., Zaefarian, F., & Ravindran, V. (2018). Feed intake response of broilers: Impact of feed processing. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 237, 154-165.
Amerah, A. M., & Ravindran, V. (2014). Effect of Whole Wheat Feeding on Gut Function and Nutrient Utilization in Poultry. In Wheat and rice in disease prevention and health (pp. 35-40). Academic Press.
Birk, A. R., Johnson, C. A., & Firman, J. D. (2016). Effects of high fat broiler pre-starter rations on performance and cost. Int. J. Poult. Sci, 15, 467-474.
Bizeray, D., Leterrier, C., Constantin, P., Picard, M., & Faure, J. M. (2002). Sequential feeding can increase activity and improve gait score in meat-type chickens. Poultry Science, 81(12), 1798-1806.
Bouvarel, I., Chagneau, A. M., Lescoat, P., Tesseraud, S., & Leterrier, C. (2008). Forty-eight-hour cycle sequential feeding with diets varying in protein and energy contents: adaptation in broilers at different ages. Poultry science, 87(1), 196–203. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2007-00205
Ewa, V. U., Nwakpu, P. E., & Otuma, M. (2006). Effect of feed restriction on growth performance and economy of production of broiler chicks. Animal Research International, 3(3), 513-515.
Fontana, E. A., Weaver Jr, W. D., Watkins, B. A., & Denbow, D. M. (1992). Effect of early feed restriction on growth, feed conversion, and mortality in broiler chickens. Poultry science, 71(8), 1296-1305.
FOUDA, T., DERBALA, A., HELAL, A., & MORSY, A. (2019). IMPROVING PERFORMANCE OF FLAT-LINK CHAIN FEEDER IN POULTRY HOUSES. Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture & Rural Development, 19(3).
Franco-Rosselló, R., Navarro-Villa, A., Polo, J., Solà-Oriol, D., & García-Ruiz, A. I. (2022). Improving broiler performance at market age regardless of stocking density by using a pre-starter diet. Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 31(1), 100232.
Leeson, S., & Zubair, A. K. (1997). Nutrition of the broiler chicken around the period of compensatory growth. Poultry science, 76(7), 992–999. https://doi.org/10.1093/ps/76.7.992
Lemons, M. E., Brown, A. T., McDaniel, C. D., Moritz, J. S., & Wamsley, K. G. S. (2021). Starter and carryover effects of feeding varied feed form (FF) and feed quality (FQ) from 0–18 d on performance and processing for two broiler strains. Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 30(4), 100206.
Machado, C. A., Fernandes, E. A., Carvalho, L. S. S., Litz, F. H., Gotardo, L. R. M., & Braga, P. F. S. (2017). Performance of Chicks Submitted to Fasting Post-Hatching and with Maltodextrine Supplementing to Diet as Hydrating and Energetic Additive. Revista Brasileira de Ciência Avícola, 19(spe), 09-14.
Mahdavi, R., Karlovich, O. A., & Ficinin, V. I. (2017). Effects of supplying time of prestarter on subsequent broiler performance, carcass yield and intestinal morphometry. Russian Agricultural Sciences, 43(4), 326-331.
Onagbesan, O. M., Uyanga, V. A., Oso, O., Tona, K., & Oke, O. E. (2023). Alleviating heat stress effects in poultry: updates on methods and mechanisms of actions. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, 1255520.
Özkan, S., Plavnik, I., & Yahav, S. (2006). Effects of early feed restriction on performance and ascites development in broiler chickens subsequently raised at low ambient temperature. Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 15(1), 9-19.
Purswell, J. L., Olanrewaju, H. A., & Zhao, Y. (2021). Effect of feeder space on live performance and processing yields of broiler chickens reared to 56 days of age. Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 30(3), 100175.
Saleh, E. A., Watkins, S. E., & Waldroup, P. W. (1997). Changing time of feeding starter, grower, and finisher diets for broilers 2. birds grown to 2.2 kg. Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 6(1), 64-73.
Santoso, U. (2001). Effects of early feed restriction on growth, fat accumulation and meat composition in unsexed broiler chickens. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 14(11), 1585-1591.
Singh, Y., Amerah, A. M., & Ravindran, V. (2014). Whole grain feeding: Methodologies and effects on performance, digestive tract development and nutrient utilisation of poultry. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 190, 1-18.
Syafwan, S., Kwakkel, R. P., & Verstegen, M. W. A. (2011). Heat stress and feeding strategies in meat-type chickens. World’s Poultry Science Journal, 67(4), 653-674.
Van der Klein, S. A. S., Silva, F. A., Kwakkel, R. P., & Zuidhof, M. J. (2017). The effect of quantitative feed restriction on allometric growth in broilers. Poultry Science, 96(1), 118-126.
Yaman, M. A., Kita, K., & Okumura, J. (2000). Different responses of protein synthesis to refeeding in various muscles of fasted chicks. British poultry science, 41(2), 224-228.
Zuidhof, M. J., McGovern, R. H., Schneider, B. L., Feddes, J. J. R., Robinson, F. E., & Korver, D. R. (2004). Effects of feed withdrawal time on the incidence of fecal spillage and contamination of broiler carcasses at processing. Journal of applied poultry research, 13(2), 171-177.